• Gender Equality

The Role of Academia in Promoting Gender and Women’s Rights Issues in the Arab World and Southern and Central Europe

Introduction

Presentation of the Study

The first one of its kind and scope, this study is based on detailed data gathered from a comprehensive survey of 14 Gender and Women’s academic programmes in the Arab World and 14 similar programmes in Southern and Central Europe. The 14 programmes in the Arab World are located in the following countries: Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Palestine, and Tunisia; and the ones located in Southern and Central Europe are: Albania, Croatia, Cyprus, Estonia, Hungary, Lithuania, Malta, Portugal, Slovania, Spain, and Turkey. The choice of these Southern and Central Europe countries is mainly motivated by the relatively lower economic status of these countries by comparison to the Northern European countries. Many of these countries have also witnessed democratic transitions that are not different from the ones happening in the Arab World.

This study has three main aims:

(1) map the Gender and Women’s academic programmes that offer postgraduate courses in the Arab World and Southern and Central Europe and that are still running,

(2) contextualize and analyze these programmes,

(3) make a comparison between the programmes in the Arab World, on the one hand, and between the programmes in the Arab World and Southern and Central Europe, on the other hand.

Methodology

This study is based on the following sources:

– a questionnaire prepared by the IEMED and answered by 20 responsibles of Gender and Women’s Studies academic programmes (a few other questionnaires were completed but were not analysed in this article),

– the author’s own researches and,

– interviews with 8 responsibles and/or members of programmes affiliated to the following institutions: Bir Zeit University (Palestine), the University of Jordan, American University of Beirut (Lebanon), Moulay Ismail University (Morocco), alAkhawayne University in Ifrane (Morocco), the University of Algiers (Algeria), Abdelhamid Ibn Badis University (Algeria), and the University of Manouba (Tunisia).

Both quantitative and qualitative methods have been used to measure the objectives and themes addressed by the Gender and Women’s academic programmes, the concepts used, the gender ratios, the ways in which the programmes approach gender equality and women’s rights in their respective countries, and the challenges they face.

In terms of the organization of the contents, the methodology mirrors the above-stated aims; hence the study is divided into 3 parts. Part one is a general presentation of the Gender and Women’s graduate programmes in the Arab World and Southern and Central Europe. The degree of details provided for each programme depends on the amount of the gleaned information from the questionnaires and interviews. The second part situates and analyzes the contents of the first part, and the third part compares the roles that the programmes play in the promotion of gender equality and women’s rights in the Arab World and Southern and Central Europe. The study ends with conclusions and recommendations, a bibliography and a table summarizing the basic information of the selected programmes (see Annex).

Mapping of Gender and Women’s Academic Programmes in the Arab World

The mapping below lists the countries in which the Gender and Women’s graduate programmes are running in alphabetical order. Some countries have more than one programme.

1. Algeria

From the scanty information gathered from the internet and correspondence with various Algerian university professors, it is not clear whether there is a full-fledged Master/PhD programme in Gender and/or Women Studies in this country. According to the available information, there is a Laboratory of Gender, Languages, and Sociolinguistic Diversity Studies at the University of Mostghanem Abdelhamid Ibn Badis, a public university located in Mostghanem, but absolutely no information could be gleaned except what is included in the Annex.

However the topics addressed in academic gender studies programmes are dealt with by a Center of Information and Documentation (CIDDEF), located at the University of Algiers, also a public university. This centre focuses on the rights of children and women, and is headed by a woman professor and lawyer, Nadia Aït-Zaï, who teaches at the faculty of law in Algiers.

2. Egypt

Two graduate programmes in Egypt offer courses in Gender/Women’s Studies: the Cynthia Nelson Institute for Gender and Women’s Studies (IGWS) and the Professional Master in Gender and Development.

The MA at the American University of Cairo (AUC)

This programme is located in the School of Global Affairs and Public Policy at the American University of Cairo (AUC), a private university. IGWS is an academic research institute and a graduate teaching center for scholars, researchers and graduate students interested in gender issues in the Middle East, Africa, and South Asia. The programme draws its questions and approaches from the humanities and social sciences through investigating how relations of gender are embedded in social, political and cultural formations.

It provides students with an interdisciplinary and transnational perspective in Gender and Women’s Studies with a special emphasis on the Middle East and North African region. It offers three MA specializations: Gendering Political Economies; Geographies of Gender and Justice, Gender and Women’s Studies in the Middle East/North Africa. IGWS prepares graduate students for a wide variety of professional careers, such as consultants in international development agencies, local non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and national government agencies. This programme also allows students wishing to pursue doctoral work to have the necessary training in Gender and Women’s Studies, including the theoretical and methodological tools in most disciplines and applied research fields.

The main themes of the programme are: Gender and Politics, Gender and Economy, Gender and Migration, Feminist Theories and/or History.

The average number of students enrolled in the programme every year is 20. 99% of the students enrolled in the programme is female, and the female academic staff is entirely female. IGWS approaches the context of gender equality and women’s in Egypt through introducing graduate students to the theoretical and conceptual frameworks dealing with equality and rights frameworks within the academic field as a basis for engaging these questions in the contemporary Egyptian context. IGWS faces a challenge at the academic level: as the undergraduate academic training in social sciences in Egyptian national universities is limited, graduate students admitted to IGWS come from diverse academic backgrounds, which pushes IGWS to allocate the first year to introducing students to the academic field in Gender and Women’s Studies and social science research methodologies in order to provide a foundation from which to eventually articulate specific research projects.

The MA is part of research networks related to gender equality and/or women’s rights. This relation is diverse and changing and is carried out in conjunction with externally funded research projects undertaken by the institute’s research center. IGWS is interested in participating in networking activities related to research on gender and Women’s issues at the Euro-Mediterranean level. There are two core requirements for students seeking to join IGWS: First, take a course on Theorizing Gender (3 cr.). This seminar introduces students to the core theoretical literature and debates in the field of gender and women studies. In addition to laying the intellectual foundation for further academic work in gender and women’s studies, the seminar also engages contemporary debates on traveling theory with a particular focus 1 on the Global South.

All the MA students are required to take this course in their first semester. This Seminar is offered in fall. The primary goal of this course is to develop adequate tools for understanding the gendering of political economies in the contemporary world. Second, take a course in Critical Geographies: Reading the Global South (3 cr.). This seminar explores the spatial and its social, political and gendered effects with a particular focus on dispossession. It introduces students to critical work about space in the social sciences aimed towards social transformation. In addition to the two core courses, three electives are offered to the students, one of them must be a GWST course. The list of electives is reviewed by the IGWS Graduate Advisory Committee every academic year. The list of electives for any given semester is available on the IGWS graduate center website. To specialize in Gender and Women’s Studies in the Middle East and North Africa, students are required to take the following courses: -Approaches to Middle East/ North Africa Gender and Women’s Studies (3 cr.).

This course immerses students in the historical, philosophical and theoretical debates within the academic field of Middle East Gender and Women’s Studies. Interdisciplinary approaches as well as varieties of theoretical positions are exposed and discussed critically. Acknowledging the entanglements of regions, scholarly debates and politically struggles, this course locates the Middle East/ North Africa region within its worldly context. Past foci have included “Women’s Rights, Human Rights”, “Critical Urbanism: Gender, Poverty, Violence,” “Practices of Islamic Family Law” and “Regulating Bodies” The courses are offered in spring and they may be taken more than once if content changes.

-Histories and Theories of Gender and Development (3 cr.).

The aim of this foundation seminar is to introduce students to the historical, theoretical and empirical perspectives and experiences that inform current programmes and polices in the field of gender and development. The course is divided into four sub-modules each of which will present key concepts in the analysis of social relations between men and women in the context of development thinking. Each module will present these theoretical perspectives with reference to concrete empirical applications. This seminar is offered every fall.

-Gender and Migration (3 cr.).

This seminar provides an in depth engagement with the growing sub-field of Gender and Migration. Themes covered include: international gendered labor markets, migration to and from the Middle East, domestic labor, trafficking, displacement through conflict and development, remittances, and human rights. This is a joint course offered by the Center for Migration Studies and Refugee Studies and the Institute for Gender and Women’s Studies. All IGWS courses are meant to prepare students for writing an MA Thesis. Indeed all students must complete a thesis according to university regulations. Before commencing work on the thesis, the student must have a thesis proposal approved by the IGWS Graduate Advisory Committee. Students should familiarize themselves with the specific procedural requirements of the IGWS thesis. Guidelines are available in the IGWS office and on the web.

The Master Programme at Cairo University (CU)

The Master is located at the Faculty of Economics and Political Science at CU, a public university. The Master in Gender and Development has four major aims : (i) Equip students with knowledge that is both tailored for understanding and working in development in both Egypt and internationally; (ii) Provide students with marketable practical competences to engage with development problems through a gender lens and other solutions through policy formulation ; (iii) Offer students work experience in the form of a term-long internship, and (iv) Emphasize analytical and quantitative and qualitative research skills.

The main themes that this Master addresses are: Feminist Theories and/or History ; Gender and Economy ; and Gender and Politics. The average number of students enrolled every year is 25. 90% of the enrolled students is female, and the average percentage of female academic staff is 75%.

This programme approaches the context of gender equality and women’s rights in Egypt through the elective course “Gender and Inequality” and related issues are studied from various perspectives in other courses. The main challenge the programme faces at the academic level is to maintain and sustain the level of experts, students and content. This programme is not part of any research network related to gender equality and/or women’s rights and the responsible of the programme is interested in participating in networking activities related to research on gender and women’s issues at the EuroMediterranean level.

3. Jordan

The University of Jordan, a public university situated in Amman, has a graduate programme called “Women’s Studies programme” which started operating in 1997. This programme grew 1 to become a department for Women Studies, and then a specialized Center in women’s issues at both the local and the global levels. This programme is of two typesi) a thesis track type and (ii) a comprehensive track. The first type accredits courses and the writing of an MA thesis. The main themes offered by the programme are : Gender and Human Rights; Gender and Politics; Gender and Sustainable Development; Women in Mass Media and Communication; Scientific Research Methods; Feminist Theory; Security; and Women in History. The programme offers the following courses: Concepts in Women’s Studies, Scientific Research Methods , Woman in Law, Feminist Theory, Women’s Health, Gender and Sustainable Development, Women and Business, Contemporary Gender Issues, Women and Politics, Women in Mass Media and Communication, The Image of Women in literature and Culture, Social Theories from a Gendered Perspective, Statistical Analysis from a Gendered Perspective, Women’s Human Rights and Human Security, Women in History, Special Topic in Women’s Studies Some of these courses are obligatory and some are electives.

The objectives of the Programme are (i) Conducting research and academic studies on women and gender-related issues. (ii) Awarding academic degrees in Women’s Studies. (iii) Offering consultations and training programmes for foundations that deals with women’s issues. (iv) Providing community service in the field of gender equality. (v) Signing MoUs and conducting collaborative studies in the area of research, as well as exchanging information and experiences with similar centers and entities inside and outside of Jordan. (vi) Creating database and information about women’s issues. (vii) Building a communication network with the local, regional, and international organizations in women-related fields. (viii) Holding and participating in local and international conferences.

The main themes of the programme are : Gender and Politics; Gender and Economy; Gender and Science; Feminist Theories and/or History; Gender, Arts and Literature; Gender and Nationalism; Feminist Philosophy, Gender and Media. The average number of students enrolled in the programme every year is 10-15. The average percentage of female students enrolled in the programme is 90%, and all the academic staff in the programme is female.

4. Lebanon

There are two Gender and Women’s Studies academic programmes in Lebanon: the first is located in the Lebanon American University (LAU) and the second one in the American University in Beirut (AUB). Both programmes are located in Beirut and both the universities in which they are located are both private.

The Master Programme at the Lebanon American University (LAU)

The LAU Gender and Women’s Studies academic programme is a two-year programme located in the Institute for Women’s Studies in the Arab World, itself located at the Lebanese American University, Beirut. The programme has been launched in 2016. The objectives of this programme are (i) Provide the theoretical knowledge, interdisciplinary competencies, and practical skills needed to pursue post-graduate work in Gender Studies or other related fields. (ii) Develop opportunities for continuous professional development and leadership, (iii) Pursue careers in governmental and NGOs, ministries, as well as national, regional, and international agencies with good communication and teamwork skills. The LAU programme provides students with a high quality education that is interdisciplinary in nature, where students take courses in a wide range of disciplines such as literature, political science, history, sociology, psychology, and economics, all with a gender perspective.

It prepares students for doctoral studies, and/or a variety of professional careers by engaging them in the discovery and production of knowledge. More specifically, the programme prepares graduates to pursue studies at the Ph.D. level in Women and Gender Studies, Philosophy, Sociology, Literature, Psychology, History, or other fields in the humanities or social sciences. It also offers students an interdisciplinary programme that integrates gender, class, race, religion, culture, ethnicity, and sexualities and enables students to generate interdisciplinary and quality research in the field of Gender and Women’s Studies. Further, the programme seeks to connect academic work with the social and political world outside the university.

Finally, it prepares qualified graduates to assume leadership roles in regional and international agencies, and to conduct quality research in the field of women/human rights. At the level of learning experience, the programme enables students to (i) Explore and evaluate major theories and concepts related to women and gender, (ii) Identify and evaluate research methodologies appropriate to inter-disciplinary inquiry, (iii) Think holistically and critically, (iv) Acquire effective communication skills and leadership techniques, (v) Write research papers, analytical reports, policy briefs, and give public presentations, and (vi) Work effectively as team members to design, develop, and implement awareness campaigns. The MA degree in LAU’s Women and Gender Studies, the first of its kind in Lebanon, is a testimony to LAU’s legacy as the first women’s college in the region and founder of the first 1 institute for women’s studies in the Arab world. It is an expression of the university’s commitment to justice, parity, and gender equity. The MA degree is interdisciplinary in nature seeking to prepare graduates for professional employment and further higher studies.

The MA degree in Women and Gender Studies is vital not solely to the production of knowledge about women’s lives and status globally, but also as a platform to address women’s problems within the contemporary cultural, social, and political environment and challenge professed wrongs and abuses through academic research and intellectual rigor. The programme meets the needs and place of the students and staff, who are at the forefront of scholarship and career development through intellectual endeavors as well as social activism. Graduates of the LAU graduate Programme in Women and Gender Studies can pursue several career options where they can: (i) Assume leadership positions in national, regional, and international agencies operating in the field of human rights, education, migration, diplomacy, and conflict resolution ; (ii) Work as consultants for international development agencies, UN agencies, human rights organizations, local NGOs, as well as governmental organizations, and ministries ; (iii) Acquire expertise in gender, race, sexuality, and class relations, which are areas in demand in a number of fields and professions.

So far as the programme’s curriculum is concerned, the students should complete 30 credit hours of coursework or a total of 8 courses and a thesis to acquire the MA degree. Five out of the 8 courses are core, required courses, and 3 are elective courses to be selected from other graduate programmes in the humanities, social sciences, education, or business. Fulltime students are expected to complete their requirements in two years. The main themes of the programme are: Gender and Politics, Gender and Economy, GenderBased Violence (GBV), Gender and Migration, Feminist Theories and/or History. The core courses are Research Methods in Studies of Women & Gender, Theories of Gender and Global Feminism, Arab and Islamic Feminisms (history and theory), Gender and Public Policy. Internship (in local, regional, or International NGO working on women’s issues in the Middle East) is obligatory. Non-core courses that can be chosen by students are : Topics in Women and Gender Studies, Gender and Migration, Topics in Middle East International Relations, a graduate seminar in Comparative Literature or Masculine Identity in Modern Arab Literature of the Near East.

Finally, students must complete a thesis according to university regulations. Before commencing work on the thesis, the student must present a thesis proposal for approval by three faculty members. The thesis proposal should comprise a research question, a set of hypotheses, bibliography of the references used, and an outline of the research method that will be adopted. 7 students have registered to the MA in Gender Studies in the first year of the programme. All the students enrolled in the programme are female, and the core teaching faculty are women but there are male professors, who are affiliated to different departments, namely International Affairs, Business, and Migration Studies, who teach elective courses that are cross-listed with the programme.

The context of gender equality and women’s rights in Lebanon is approached in the programme in the following way: the adoption of an interdisciplinary direction for the Programme given the significant shift in feminist scholarship that calls for a focus on gender rather than women. The programme also opts for a contemporary stance that looks beyond binary categories and examines how gender is an integral part of political, economic, and cultural institutions. The programme examines the intersection of gender with other social identities and challenge stereotypes, and explores the relationships among gender, race, ethnicity, sexual identity, socioeconomic class, and age. The focus on gender also affects the questions that are asked, the methods that are used, and the uses of knowledge in creating feminist scholarship within a multicultural and historical framework. It also promotes more inclusive approaches to advocacy and activism in the programme.

The degree guarantees a high level of academic freedom and integrates gender, along with several themes and concepts that are crucial to understanding gender inequality in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region, such as education, sexuality, health, political representation, economic participation, and so on. The main challenges the programme faces at the academic level are: funding to sustain the programme and host more visiting professors, scholarships to assist more students who are interested in majoring in gender studies, and highten students’ interest in the field. Indeed students’ interest is low because there is lack of clarity on what they might concretely do with a career in gender studies.

There is low awareness on the marketability of this career path, and there is a sense that the only option for those who pursue this line of study is to then go on to teach gender studies. Thus it is necessary to conduct an outreach and awareness campaign among students to help clarify this. The programme is not part of any research network related to gender equality and/or 2 women’s rights. The programme responsible is interested in participating in networking activities related to research on gender and women´s issues at the Euro-Mediterranean level.

The American University of Beirut (AUB)

The American University of Beirut (AUB) has a Gender Studies programme. This programme is an interdisciplinary initiative that fosters cross-disciplinary teaching and research on the role of gender in society and its intersection with other social forces and identities. Through a variety of courses, students learn how different academic fields and disciplines view the operation of gender in the labor market, social movements, the family, healthcare, political systems, and cultural productions and representations. Undergraduate students across the University can receive a minor in Gender Studies. Launched in 2016, the programme is committed to further AUB’s liberal arts education by foregrounding gender as a site of intellectual inquiry, critical thinking, and creative exploration.

Students are expected to question common-sense understandings of gender and explore its material, cultural, and political realities in a variety of social and historical contexts. Students can choose from a broad and growing range of course offerings in health sciences, social sciences, and the humanities, which include Gender & Violence, Sex, Gender, and Media in the Middle East, Queer and Post-Queer Theories of Gender, Sexuality and Ability, Gender in Classical Islamic Society, Sexuality and Public Health, and Gender and Language. This is the only programme in the Arab world that offers Queer studies. This programme started a Minor in Gender Studies in the academic year 2016-17 in collaboration with the Departments of History; Sociology; Anthropology; Media Studies; Health Promotion and Community Health; and Epidemiology and Population Health.

The Minor requires 15 credits from any of the following courses: Gender and Language, Gender and Sexuality, Reproductive Health, Gender in Classical Islamic Society, Sexuality and Public Health, Gender and Culture, seminars, and/or course sections with emphases on Gender, Sexuality, and/or Women’s Studies – with approval by the Chair of the Department of English. This Minor is meant to foster interest in the creation of a Master and PhD programmes at AUB. The staff of the Minor in Gender Studies approach equality and women’s rights issues through attempts to impact policy making. These attempts include the organization of workshops, seminars and similar activities. The staff of the programme are male and female and so are the students. The programme is trying to establish contacts with equality and women’s rights networks and is interested in being part of a Euromed network.

5. Morocco

The main characteristics of the Gender/Women Studies programmes in Morocco is their capacity to offer MAs and PhDs, their increasing number, and their multilingualism (English, French and Arabic). Three representative programmes are selected in this study on the basis of the language of instruction they use: the first offers courses in French, the second in Arabic, and the third in English.

The Graduate Gender and Women’s Studies Programmes at Hassan II University

Hassan II University is a public university located in Casablanca. It has two Gender and Women’s programmes: a Master and a Doctoral programmes. Both are located in the Faculty of Letters.

The Master Programme at Hassan II University

The Master “Gender, Society, and Culture” is the first Master in Gender in Morocco. The first two-years and thesis-based Unit of Gender Studies and Research opened in Fez in 2000. Its structure was based on Master programmes in Europe and the US. When the Ministry of Higher education adopted the term “Master” to replace “Unit of Research – UFR – (Unité de Formation et de Recherche), Gender, Society and Culture Master was the first to be created in 2006. Two other Masters, including the one that took over the first Gender Studies Unit in Fez, and another one in Tangiers, followed suit. In 2014-2015 the Master “Gender and Public Policy” was created in Rabat and the Master “Gender, Society and Human Development” was created in Oujda. The latter was closed in 2016.

The objectives of the Hassan II University Master are: (i) To train students to carry out research in gender, society, and culture. (ii) To gear training towards serving the community and contributing to its modernization and development. (iii) To introduce students to recognized multidisciplinary fields of study in major international universities. (iv) To develop knowledge of the fundamentals and practices of the gender perspective. (v) To provide the scientific tools needed to monitor the evolution of gender relations in the different sectors and strata of society. (vi)To focus training on the multiple axes 2 of intercultural education. The main themes of the Programme are: Gender and Migration, Gender and Human Rights, Theories and History of Feminism, Gender, arts and literature. The average number of students enrolled in the programme every year is 25.

The average percentage of female students enrolled in the programme is 60%, and the average percentage of female staff in the programme is 70%. The Master Gender, Society, and Culture Programme approaches the context of gender equality and women’s rights in Morocco by offering training based on the context that prevails in Morocco such as the official attitude of the country towards CEDAW or the 2004 Family Law reforms. The main challenges that the Programme faces at the academic is to produce good publications and organize scientific events.

The Doctoral Programme at Hassan II University

The Hassan II University’s doctoral programme is part of the Laboratory Gender Education Literature and Media. The main themes of the programme are : Violence-based Gender; Gender and Migration; Gender and Human Rights; Theories and History of Feminism; Gender, arts and literature; and Gender and Masculinities. The average number of students enrolled in the programme every year is 7. The average percentage of female students enrolled in the programme is 70%, and the number of female staff in the programme is approximatively 60%.

The doctoral programme approaches the context of gender equality and women’s rights in Morocco by accompanying the breakthroughs that Morocco achieved in matters of gender equality and women’s rights and the continuous backlash on such rights such as the constant decline in the labor force participation rate of women, the increasing violence against women, etc. The programme also carries out actions like an inventory of research and training, organizing workshops, etc. The main challenges the programme faces at the academic level are similar to the ones faced by the Master programme. The staff of the programme are interested in establishing more networking with Euromed programmes.

The Graduate Gender and Women’s Studies at Moulay Ismail University

Moulay Ismail University, a public university located in Meknes, has two graduate Gender and Women’s Studies academic programmes: a Master and a Doctoral programmes.

The Master Programme at Moulay Ismail University

The Moulay Ismail Master programme is called “Women and Development”. The objectives of this programme are: (i) Study the status of women in the Arab world in general and in Morocco in particular, (ii) Study and define of women’s rights. (iii) Contextualize the Family Code and Labor Law in Morocco. (iv) Enable young men and women to keep pace with development projects at the national level. v) Provide frameworks that would enable these young men and women to work with international organizations. (vi) Provide frameworks for working with civil society organizations. The average number of students enrolled in the programme every year is 25.

The average percentage of female students enrolled in the programme is 50% and the average percentage of female staff in the programme is also 50%. So far as approaching the context of gender equality and women’s rights in Morocco, the programme is in line with the gender equality status in the Morocco, which was set before the new Family Code was promulgated in 2004. The Family Code is considered to be a synthesis of what women were calling for. There has also been considerable research done by students related to GBV. The main challenge the Moulay Ismail University programme faces at the academic level is the non-availability for the students who register in the “Women and Development” Master and wish to register their doctoral dissertation of an option to register their Doctoral dissertation in the Sociology Departments which they had left to join the Master programme, as this department does not recognize an MA in Gender Studies as a valid one for such a registration.

The Meknes Master programme is part of a research network related to the University of Sevilla. It has also established partnerships with various Morocco-based women’s NGOs. The staff of the programme are very interested in networking with Euromed programmes.

The Doctoral Programme at Moulay Ismail University

The Moulay Ismail Docotoral programme is called “Women and Writing”. The initial aim behind the creation of this programme was to allow students to continue research in all the fields that are related to women and development, such as law, economics, shari’a law, morals, etc. As this aim could not be achieved the Master staff agreed to limit the themes of the Doctoral programme to “Women and Writing”. This programme aims at (i) Keeping up with the literature on women’s creativity. (ii) Develop critical readings of women’s criticisms. (ii) Celebrate women’s creativity, especially in the field of poetry; gender and migration, and GBV.

The main themes of the programme are : Gender and Human Rights, Women’s Rights Conventions, Gender, art and literature, Feminist Theories and/or history of Femininity, Gender and Religion, Gender and Popular Culture, Women’s Image in Arabic Literature of various ages. The Meknes Doctoral programme has yielded important research in the collection and synthesis of hair Amazigh poetry and its translation into Arabic, women’s writings, and criticism of gender.

The Master Programme at al-Akhawayne University

The al-Akhawayne Master programme is called “Gender Studies” and is located in the Hillary Clinton Center for Women’s Empowerment, at al-Akhawayn University in Ifrane (AUI). The two main objectives of the programme are (i) Research on contemporary gender issues in North Africa, and (ii) Grassroots outreach programmes for rural women’s empowerment. The main themes of the programme are Gender and Politics, Gender and Economy, Gender and Nationalism, Feminist Philosophy, Gender and Media.

The average number of students enrolled in the programme every year is 55. The average percentage of female students enrolled in the program is 35%, and the average percentage of female academic staff in the programme is 90%.The programme approaches the context of gender equality and women’s rights in Morocco through courses, research, conferences, publications, and grassroots outreach programmes. The main challenge the Ifrane programme faces at the academic level is insufficient financial resources. The programme is part of some research networks related to gender equality and/or women’s rights and its coordinator is interested in participating in networking activities related to research on gender and women’s issues at the Euro-Mediterranean level.

6. Palestine

There are two major graduate Gender and Women’s academic Studies in Palestine : Master programme in Women’s Studies, located both at Birzeit University, Ramallah, and the Master Women’s Studies programme, located at the Naplouse al-Najah Al-Wataniyya University.

The Master programme at Birzeit University

The Ramallah Master programme in Women’s Studies is called “Master in Gender and Development Studies”. It is located at the Institute of Women’s Studies (IWS), Birzeit University, a public institution in Ramallah. Birzeit University originated as the first primary school for the girls of the village of Birzeit. Established in 1994, the IWS is the first academic initiative in the Gender Studies in Palestine and one of the first programmes in the Arab world and the Master programme in Gender and Development Studies is the first graduate programme of its kind in the region.

The launching of the IWS came at a critical time, when Palestinian higher education clearly needed to develop new academic and research programmes that addressed the developmental needs of Palestinian society. Palestinian women still face formidable challenges in adopting effective strategies to address basic social and development issues in order to build a society based on gender equality. Regarding the vision and mission of IWS, since its establishment in 1994 as an interdisciplinary programme, the Women’s Studies program has been committed to teaching, research, gender-based community intervention, and to influencing social policies. Throughout the past decade, the Institute has sought to realize its goals which focused on: contributing to the development of the study of gender at both bachelor and master levels, using an interdisciplinary approach, increasing scientific knowledge using 2 gender methods in addition to empowering researchers to use feminist analysis tools, and to develop Palestinian research competencies.

The goals have also focused on supporting the civil society, especially the women movement, and social movements through providing consulting based on meticulous research. To contribute to developing a qualified academic staff, the IWS has taught gender issues in various academic fields, provided opportunities for graduate studies, introduced the students to the ongoing controversy around women issues at the global level, and encouraged the students to participate. Through that, the Institute would have influenced the official and nonofficial national policies. Indeed, teaching, research, and a community intervention programme for gender issues are the three main activities of the Institute. The main goals of the IWS are: (i) Develop avenues to empower women, (ii) Expand a network of Palestinian women’s institutions. (iii) Contribute towards developing equitable, genderaware and effective public and institutional policies. (iv) Contribute towards policy formulation, development planning, social action and the development of the agenda of the women’s movement as a whole.

The resources of the IWS include the library, which offers core services supporting the teaching, learning and research needs of the Institute. It has become an essential source for undergraduates, postgraduates, researchers and professionals alike. The library holds approximately 6 861 books in total (in both Arabic and English) offering a specialist collection in the field of gender studies. The other resource of the IWS is the Hala Atalla Scholarship Fund, which was set up in order to support female students coming from rural and underprivileged backgrounds. The fund ensures that these students do not withdraw or drop out of the educational programme as a result of the escalating social, economical and political crisis in Palestine. The Master programme in the IWS was founded in 1998. For the first seven years of its existence, the IWS offered a Master’s Degree in Gender, Law, and Development. As of the year 2016-2017, however, the IWS offers a Master’s Degree in Gender and Development Studies, with law a less specialized part of the programme. The programme is thesis-based and offers a Master’s degree in Women’s Studies after completing all the graduation requirements of 36 credit hours, including the master’s thesis.

The programme has additional requirements as remedial materials if needed. The main goals of the Master programme are: (i) Expanding and deepening students’ knowledge of existing theory and concepts related to gender and development on the international, regional and Palestinian levels. (ii) Developing students’ analytical and critical abilities when dealing with and evaluating policies and developmental programs from a gender perspective. (iii) Developing students’ abilities to conduct research on the need for integrating gender in developmental sectors, and obstacles hindering it. The programme aims to develop students’ abilities in four areas: (i) Theory and concepts essential to understanding contemporary social issues, including those relating to the fields of development and gender. (ii) Methodology, involving analysis and critical thinking, in evaluating development and legislative policies. (iii) Needs assessment an analysis of obstacles involved in the creation and implementation of policy and programmes relating to development. (iv) Awareness and understanding of the role of legislation in influencing policies relating to development and other social issues. The main themes that the programme addresses are: Human and Women’s Rights, Gender Policies, Feminist Theories.

The various courses of the programme are available in its website. The main challenges of the programme may be summarized as follows: Since the outbreak of the second Intifada in 2000, the erratic school year, invasions, road closures, and other obstacles mounted by the Israeli military have put severe constraints on students’ ability to complete the programme. Most of the MA students in the programme hold full-time jobs and are married with children. The hours of travel and the expense, not to mention the physical danger and emotional stress, involved in reaching the university from their home towns or villages, make attending classes impossible for most of them. Each year, more students from outlaying regions (northern and southern areas of the West Bank and all of Gaza) have been forced by these circumstances to drop out. Graduates and older students in the programme are concrete proof of its positive impact on their career trajectories, and perhaps more importantly for the programme, have had a strong and growing impact on the way that gender issues are being addressed and debated across a wide range of Palestinian institutions, programmes, and activities.

The IWS has been a direct beneficiary of its own Master’s programme, having been able to bring onto their staff five graduates, each of whom bringing new energy, perspectives, and skills to the teaching and research in the programme. The programme has been able to support a number of its faculty students in obtaining PhDs and other training outside Palestine, and is now receiving the benefits of its long-term 2 commitment to continuing in the Institute. Gender issues are also approached though the organization of forums, workshops, and academic panels. In addition, the programme promotes gender intervention activities in the form of research projects, training, and consultations that have policy implications and produce meaningful interventions for the welfare and development of Palestinian women, men, and children.

These interventions are geared towards both to governmental and nongovernmental sectors. In the first category are Palestinian Authority institutions such as the Ministries of Education, Planning, and Women’s Affairs. Other interventions target civil society, mainly women’s groups and organizations. In addition, faculty members have initiated different research projects with international organizations like the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and the United Nations Development Propgramme (UNDP). In addition, the programme partners with various national, regional, and international women’s rights networks, organizations, and universities and its staff are interested in being part of the Euro-Med network.

The Master at al-Najah al-Wataniyya University

As for the Master in Women’s Studies at al-Najah Al-Wataniyya University, a public university located in Naplouse, it was established in line with the University’s development strategy, which includes wider participation by broad segments of society. The Master programme in Women’s Studies is geared towards several objectives: (i) Ensuring a wider participation of students in the development process and eliminating obstacles to access to higher education; (ii) Contributing to the decision-making process, especially since women and the subject of women’s studies have been marginalized for a long period of time. It is believed that the development process in Palestine requires an effective participation of women in the process of economic and social development.

Therefore, the main objective of this programme is to strengthen the role of women entrepreneurs through empowering them with the knowledge and skills needed. The main themes that the Programme addresses are: Gender, Economics, Gender and Politics, Gender and Co-operation, GBV, Gender and Human Rights, Women’s Rights Conventions, Feminist theories and/or History of femininity, Gender and Science, Gender, Art and Literature. The average number of students registered every year is 10-15. The average percentage of female students is 98%, and the average percentage of female staff is 50%. In the context of Palestine’s gender equality and women’s rights, the programme contributes to providing women’s institutions in particular and other institutions in general in the country with cadres that are aware of women’s issues, adequate skills that help to achieve positive change in society and achieve the principle of equality.

This programme also contributes to achieving a balance in the distribution of different roles of the community and a gender-based planning in different fields. The programme faces three major challenges: (i) limited resources and references, (ii) limited academic cadres specialized in different fields of gender, and (iii) cultural issues surrounding gender perceptions. The Programme is not part of any gender equality or women’s rights network and would like to be part of a Euro-Med such network.

7. Tunisia

There are two graduate Programmes that address gender and women’s issues in Tunisia: the Master of Gender, Culture, and Society, located at the University of Manouba, and the International Master of Gender, located at the University of Sousse.

The Master Programme at the University of Manouba

This Master programme is called “Master of Gender, Culture, and Society” and is located at the Faculty of Arts, Literatures and Humanities, University of Manouba, a public university located in Tunis. The main objective of the programme is to introduce Gender Studies in Tunisian academic fields. The main themes of the programme are: Feminist Theories and/or History, Gender and Media, Gender, Arts and Literature, Gender and Religion, Gender and Law, Gender and psychology. The average number of students enrolled in the programme every year is about 15. The average percentage of female students enrolled in the programme always exceeds the percentage of men. The average percentage of female academic staff is 70%.

The programme addresses the context of gender equality and women’s rights in Tunisia by focusing on the Tunisian Code of personal status. The Tunisian Family Code, the most progressive in the Arab World, is considered in the programme as a roadmap to protect from regressive forces. The main challenges the program faces at the academic level is lack of resources and lack of expertise of the majority of the teachers. The programme is not part of any research network related to gender equality and/or women’s rights, and the programme staff is interested in participating in networking activities related to research on gender and women’s issues at the Euro-Mediterranean level. The founders of the programme would like to pay more attention to Arabic Gender courses, and particularly Gender -Terrorism- Extremism.

The Master Programme at the University of Sousse

This programme is called “International Master of Gender” and is located at the University of Sousse, a public institution. The main objectives of this Programme are: (i) Develop an innovative teaching base using new methods and approaches in the teaching of gender. (ii) Develop the experience and specialization of teachers of gender. (iii) Prepare the first graduate students as “researchers” with a solid background in Methodology and Gender Epistemology that would enable them to understand the politicization of gender at all levels, ranging from the domestic, via the national, to the international.

The main themes of the Programme are: Gender and Politics, Gender and Economy, Gender and Migration, Conventions on Women’s rights, Gender and Human Rights, Theories and History of Feminism, Gender, Arts and Literature, Gender and History, Women’s History of the Prophet, Aisha, Gender, Woman and the Qur’an, the Role of the Tunisian woman in Independence. As this Master is still in the making, the average number of students registered every year is still unknown, the average number of female students is still unknown, and the average percentage of female staff is 50. The programme approaches the context of gender equality by addressing gender as a strategic means for strengthening peace and democracy in Tunisia, which is going through a crucial political transition. Gender is considered in the programme as a “weapon” for dealing with all forms of orthodoxy. The main challenge at the academic level that the programme faces is multidisciplinarity, i.e. ways of establishing teaching and research that encompass all available specialties The programme is part of a network of gender equality and women’s rights : the Center of Arab Woman for Training and Research (CAWTAR), a network on research on gender equality.

Mapping of Gender and Women’s Academic Programmes in Southern and Central Europe

As with the mapping of the academic gender programmes in the Arab World, the mapping below lists the Southern and Central European countries in which the academic gender programmes are running in alphabetical order. Some countries have more than one programme.

1. Albania

Gender is taught at the Faculty of History and Philology, University of Tirana, but the University does not offer Gender Studies per se. More specifically, gender is taught as a subject in different programmes of the University. The main objectives of teaching gender in this faculty is to study gender problems and introduce students to the main theories and movements regarding gender issues. The main themes that are addressed are: Feminist theories and/or history, Gender and migration The average number of students enrolled every year is 15-25. The average percentage of female students enrolled in the credits is 60%, and the average percentage of female academic staff is 50%.

The subjects dot not really approach the context of gender equality and women’s rights in Albania. Their impact in this regard is rather small. The main challenge the programme faces at the academic level are: international networking and the ability of being updated on the new publications on gender, because of the lack of public funding for the university in Albania. The programme is not part of any research network related to gender equality and/or women’s rights and the staff would be interested in participating in networking activities related to research on gender and women’s issues at the Euro-Mediterranean level.

2. Belarus/Lithuania

The M.A. “Cultural Studies, specialization Gender Studies” was launched by the Center for Gender Studies, at the European Humanities University, a private university located in Minsk, Belarus. Afterwards, the programme reopened in Vilnius (Lithuania), in 2005.

The main objectives of the programme are: (i) Promote curriculum transformation through gender theory, (ii) Encourage and support research in gender by faculty, staff, students and independent researchers, (iii) Encourage and support academic and activist discourse of feminist theory and gender issues in the post-Soviet region. The main themes of the programme are: Gender and Politics, Gender and Economy, Gender and Science, Feminist Theories and/or History, Gender, Arts and literature, Gender and Nationalism, Feminist Philosophy, Gender and Media.

The average number of students enrolled in the programme every year is 6-8. The average percentage of female students enrolled in the programme is 60 – 70%, and the average percentage of female academic staff in the programme is 60%.

The programme approaches the context of gender equality and women’s rights in Lithuania through having most of the courses uniting Western feminist theory with local political, social and economic context in Lithuania and Belarus.

The main challenges the programme faces at the academic level is lack of students due to high cost of the programme and the lack of employment opportunities after graduation from MA in Gender Studies. The programme is not part of any research network related to gender equality and/or women’s rights and is interested in participating in networking activities related to research on gender and women’s issues at the Euro-Mediterranean level.

3. Croatia

In Croatia, the graduate programme “Women’s Studies” is located in the Centre for Women’s Studies, University of Zagreb. This programme is a postgraduate course in feminisms in a transnational perspective and is based on feminist knowledge in action. During its 20 years of work, the Centre has seen more than 600 participants complete the educational programme and more than 1000 participants involved in various specialized programmes.

The main objectives of the programme are: (i) Implement interdisciplinarity and integrality. (ii) Offer an insight into the diverse themes of feminism and gender studies, women’s culture and history, women’s rights and gender equality. (iii) Encourage students to learn and explore how the processes of discrimination and inequalities can be subverted by developing a critical understanding and dismantling of existing norms and oppressive 3 structures. The main themes that the programme addresses are: Gender and politics, Gender and economy, GBV, Women’s rights conventions, Gender and human rights, Feminist theories and/or history, Gender, arts and literature, Gender and law.

The average number of students enrolled in the programme every year is 33. The average percentage of female students enrolled in the programme is 90%, and the average percentage of female academic staff in the programme is also 90%.

The programme approaches the context of gender equality and women’s rights in Croatia by allowing students the opportunity to learn about Croatian women that were important for feminist movement, about writers, scientists, artists, politicians whose engagement has been crucial for women’s rights. The contemporary and actual issues are approached in the courses about women and law, women’s health and reproductive rights, gender based violence, LGBT rights, etc.

The Centre and its academic staff participate in expert teams at the national and international level and cooperate with women’s organisations and civil society organisations with commitment to social change and affirming values of equality, peace and solidarity through networking and advocacy. The main challenges the programme faces at the academic level may be stated as follows: due to the fact that Gender and Women’s Studies are not integrated in public university in Croatia, the programme remains the only non-institutional programme where students can learn about women and gender issues. Two types of problems emerge out of this fact: the programme has to cover a wide scope of themes and therefore engage big number of academic staff and experts (about 45 in year).

On the other hand, the Centre can enroll only 30-33 students from growing number of applicants (about 60-70 every year). The programme is part of research networks related to gender equality and/or women’s rights, notably AtGender, and the staff of the programme are interested in participating in networking activities related to research on gender and women’s issues at the EuroMediterranean level.

4. Cyprus

In Cyprus, the Gender Studies programme is located at the University of Cyprus – UNESCO Chair. The main objective of the programme is to equip graduates with expertise in Gender Studies, and qualify them with the skills necessary for their employment in either the public or private sector, in executive, research and official psoitions in order to manage and promote gender issues through an inter-disciplinary perspective.

Also, the course aims to train and prepare young scholars to take up a leading role in the field of Gender Studies, and to develop gender issues in an innovative and creative manner across various scientific disciplines and multiple strata of governance and policy, within the framework of democratic values, human rights and the politics of social justice. More specifically, the programme aims to:

-Promote Gender Studies at a postgraduate and inter-disciplinary level.

-Promote research in the field of Gender Studies.

-Support the specialized study of central texts in Gender Studies literature and research, as well as the study of European Union and other international suprastate policy documents on the subject of gender equality.

-Integrate research on the construction of gender within its historical and social context.

-Contribute to the development of modern and up-to-date policies and policy frameworks on gender matters, through the production of related scientific research and discourse.

-Support the development and fostering of leading personalities who will be able to work on gender equality in all its dimensions and policy terrains, and promote issues on gender on the national and international agendas of social inclusion, economic development, legal reform and fair governance.

The main themes of the programme are: Gender and Politics, Gender and Economy, Gender and Human Rights, Feminist Theories and/or History. The average number of students enrolled in the programme every year is 15.

The average percentage of female students in the programme is 95%, and the average percentage of female academic staff in the programme is 90%. The programme addresses the context of gender equality and women’s rights in Cyprus through critically and contextualized approaches with emphasis on the dominant patriarchal society and the poor percentages of women in decision making positions (economic and political). Emphasis is also put on the poor feminist discourse and the feminist theories and positions in Cyprus.

The main challenges the programme faces at the academic level can be stated as follows: The fact that students of a variety of different academic fields apply for enrolment in the programme makes the courses very challenging. The programme of Gender Studies is the first programme in the field in the Cyprus academia, hence the challenge of giving evidence 3 for the importance of Gender Studies in Cyprian society The programme has been broadly networking (without really being part of) many research networks related to gender equality and/or women’s rights. The staff of the programme are interested in participating in networking activities related to research on gender and women’s issues at the Euro-Mediterranean level.

5. Estonia

The University of Estonia does not currently have an academic programme on Gender and Women’s Studies, but the University has a Centre that publishes an annual academic journal called “Ariadne Long” (which translates as “Ariadne’s Clew” in English) and does research work within the Estonian Women’s Studies and Resource Centre The main themes approached through the Centre are: Women’s Rights Conventions; Gender and Human Rights; Gender and Science; Feminist Theories and/or History, Gender, Arts and Literature, Gender and Migration, Gender and Cooperation; GBV; Gender and Economy; and Gender and Politics. The main challenge in Estonia is that the country does not currently have any academic programme on gender.

There used to be one in in Tallinn University but it was closed after the implementation of 3+2 Bachelors + Masters programme in Estonian universities. Now there are some subjects students can choose in different universities, but no dedicated and engaged programme. The Centre is not part of any research network related to gender equality and/or women’s rights and would be interested in participating in networking activities related to research on gender and women’s issues at the Euro-Mediterranean level.

6. Greece

In Greece, the undergraduate programme “Gender in the Social Sciences” was established in 2003 at the University of Crete and was supported with European Union and National Funding (Ministry of Education) until 2008. It is an interdisciplinary programme located in the Departments of Sociology, History and Archaeology, and Philosophical and Social Studies. The main objective of the programme is the enhancement of Gender Studies at the University level through the inclusion of gender as an analytical category in education and research.

The main themes of the programme are: Gender and Politics, Gender and economy, Gender and Science, Feminist theories and/or History, Gender, Arts and Literature. With respect to the average number of students enrolled in the programme every year, courses offered within the programme are integral parts of the various Departments curricula. Consequently, a unique number of attending students cannot be estimated. The students enrolled are predominantly female. Indeed, students in the campus are predominantly women (Social Sciences and Education Departments are located in Rethymnon). Currently, all academic staff are women.

The programme approaches the context of gender equality and women’s rights in Greece by addressing laws and policies concerning gender equality in Greece in the various courses that are taught. The main challenge that the programme faces at the academic level is lack of funding. The programme is not part of any research network related to gender equality and/or women’s rights. However, it is unofficially part of such networks as the Gender Lab and academic Faculty are linked to other equivalent programmes in the country. The staff of the programme are interested in participating in networking activities related to research on gender and women’s issues at the Euro-Mediterranean level.

7. Hungary

The MATILDA European Master in Women’s and Gender History is located in the Central European University (CEU), Budapest. The main objective of the programme resides in the fact that it is designed for students wishing to develop expertise in Gender and Women’s history, as well as European history, and who are interested in intercultural exchange.

The main themes of the programme are: Gender and Politics, Gender and Human Rights, Women’s and Gender History.

The average number of students enrolled in the program every year is around 6 at the CEU. The average percentage of female students enrolled in the programme is 80%, and the average percentage of female academic staff in the programme is also 80%.

The programme approaches the context of gender equality and women’s rights in Hungary through applying a historical and comparative perspective to gender and women’s issues. The main challenges the programme faces at the academic level is the difficulty for nonnative speakers of English to be able to read and especially write at a high academic level; many only manage that in the second year of the programme.

The programme staff would not be interested in participating in networking activities related to research on gender and women’s issues at the Euro-Mediterranean level as their Department is already a partner in four such networks, and hence cannot add more networks.

8. Malta

In Malta, there is one Gender and Women’s Studies academic programme: the Master of Gender Studies, located in the Department of Gender Studies of the University of Malta, situated in Msida, a public university.

The programme is addressed to people who wish to broaden their worldview, as they build their career – within government departments, ministries and agencies, as well as NGOs and private companies. Government policy is based on gender mainstreaming which is important to tap into EU Funds and get a higher visibility. Candidates will return to their discipline with a solid understanding of how gender plays a significant and mainstreamed role in that area.

The main themes of the programme are: Gender and Politics, GBV, Gender and Migration, Gender and Human rights, Feminist Theories and/or History, Gender, Arts and Literature. The average number of students enrolled in the programme every year is 7-10. The average percentage of female students enrolled in the programme is 80%, and the academic staff in the programme is entirely female.

The programme approaches the context of gender equality and women’s rights in Malta through weaving these into the programme and through case studies. Practicals and placements also aid applicants to understand the theoretical frameworks that are contextualised in a European space. The main challenges the programme faces at the academic level may be stated as follows: Since this programme is multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary, it targets and draws interest from a broad range of applicants with backgrounds in all disciplines (ranging from Engineering, Architecture and ICT to Arts and Humanities).

The challenge is to weave a gender-centred position into all other disciplines, and help students reorientate their discipline to view them from a gender sensitive perspective. The programme is part of various research networks related to gender equality and/or women’s rights such as Women Against Violence in Europe (WAVE) and Global Media Monitoring Project (GMMP). The staff of the programme are interested in participating in networking activities related to research on gender and women’s issues at the EuroMediterranean level.

9. Portugal

The “PhD in Feminist Studies” is a doctoral programme which is located at the Faculty of Letters and Center for Social Studies, University of Coimbra, Portugal. The main objective of the programme is to provide advanced training in Feminist Studies to students coming from different disciplinary fields. Students are expected to:

– Develop critical awareness of the very process of knowledge production and of the subject’s position in relation to the object of study, as well as of the politics inherent in hegemonic discourses;

– Become aware of the normative discourses which help to create women’s roles and define their behavior, in the present as well as in the past;

– Acquire both empirical data and methods of analysis on the plurality of women’s experiences, including both empowered and marginalised social groups; – Acquire the methodologies and the theoretical key-concepts required for advanced academic research and writing.

The main themes of the programme are: GBV; Gender and Human Rights; Feminist Theories and/or History; Gender, Arts and Literature; Feminist Media Studies and Discourse Analysis; Family and Work, Sexualities, Race/Ethnicity.

The average number of students enrolled in the programme every year is 8, the programme is offered every two years. The programme has more applications than places (only 10 places are available). The average percentage of female students enrolled in the programme is 95%, and the academic staff is entirely female. The programme approaches the context of gender equality and women’s rights in Portugal by targeting full equality in Portuguese law. However, inequalities persist at all levels of social and cultural practices. For example, while 60% of the people with a university degree in Portugal are women, women still earn on average 14.9% less than men, and work an average of 1 hour and 13 minutes more than men each day in caring for home and family .

Examples of inequalities in other issues can be found in abundant specialized literature. The programme addresses inequalities in as many fields as possible, with the aim of making them visible, given that there is a prevalent discourse that all the necessary changes have been made and are in place. The main challenges the programme faces at the academic level reside in the fact that scientific legitimacy and validation is still an issue in some contexts. The programme offers interdisciplinary work, and interdisciplinarity is a problem when dealing with the course’s assessment and financing institutions. The programme is not part of any research network related to gender equality and/or women’s rights and would be interested in participating in networking activities related to research on gender and women´s issues at the Euro-Mediterranean level.

The programme director added: “Surveying academic gender programmes is an excellent initiative. Coming from a semi-peripheral country, I am very much aware of a semi-marginalization, in relation to “central” countries and languages. I find language a key-issue. Initiatives that promote networking between institutions and people working in Feminist /Gender Studies in languages other than English or French, would be very much welcome.”

10. Slovenia

The “PhD in Gender Studies” is a graduate programme located at the University of Lublijana, Slovenia. It is a joint degree of the Faculty of Arts and the Faculty of Social Sciences. This programme has developed as an academic discipline in the last few decades. As a rule, Gender Studies is an interdisciplinary field of research, which involves knowledge of philosophy, psychoanalysis, history, anthropology, sociology, political sciences, literary theory and media studies. The basic research topics are the roots of gender knowledge and gender differences.

It involves questioning and reviewing of some “mainstream” and “malestream” theories and theorisations of gender in social and humanistic academic production but also a review of some early feminist approaches to gender. In this respect, the methodology and epistemology of gender studies are of crucial importance, as well as gender determination in all key phases of the research procedure (formulation of research questions, selection of methods, sampling information, interpretation or data analysis, writing research papers).

Furthermore, particular attention is paid to the gender dimensions of globalisation processes, intercultural comparisons and interculturality, to relations between (new) technologies and gender, to cultural representations of gender and to the analysis of attempts to transform social and political institutions based on specific patterns of power relations between the genders. The main objective of the programme is to provide doctoral students with fundamental knowledge from the gender research discipline, while developing the competences required for independent research and the application of knowledge at an internationally comparable level.

11. Spain

There are three major graduate Gender and Women’s Studies academic programmes in Spain. They are situated in the following cities: Madrid, Granada, and Sevilla.

The Master Programme of the University of Madrid

The Master in Interdisciplinary Gender Studies (MEIG) is located at the Autonomous University of Madrid (UAM), Spain.

The objectives of this Master programme is to promote gender equality as it is established in the European Community policies, Spanish legislation, as well as international agreements in favour of no discrimination between women and men. In this sense, this programme has as primary objective, which is the focus on gender mainstreaming in order to acquire professional and research competences, linking in the analysis the contribution of different but interrelated disciplines. The main themes of the programme are: Gender and Politics, Gender and Economy, GBV, Gender and Cooperation, Gender and Migration, Women’s Rights Conventions, Gender and Human Rights, Gender and Science, Feminist Theories and/or History, Gender, Arts and Literature. The average number of students enrolled in the programme every year is 40.

The average percentage of female students enrolled in the programme is 85%, and the average percentage of female academic staff in the programme is also 85%. The programme approaches the context of gender equality and women’s rights in Spain by training experts in applying an interdisciplinary gender analysis in the different spheres of social, economic, cultural and academic life. This objective is based on the already wide existing legislation at national and international levels. Although equality between women and men is a fundamental right that is enshrined in art. 14 of Spanish Constitution, legal equality does not fully permeate everyday reality. In the Spanish society, many social and cultural habits 4 reflect the deep-rooted discriminatory attitudes.

The Master in Interdisciplinary Gender Studies has a large number of specialists and professionals from the UAM and other institutions, with extensive teaching, researching and professional experience. It also developed a Practicum with agreements with NGOs, state, and local public institutions, health institutions, educational institutions, public and private companies.

The main challenges the programme faces at the academic level may be stated as follows: as the teaching is supported by a group of professionals from diverse areas, this requires a great organizational effort to achieve good coordination. This effort is worthless since the Faculty where the programme is located does not belong to a specific departmental structure. Although this entails difficulties, it allows the staff of the programme to develop educationally and professionally. In this sense, the diversity has allowed the staff to attract students from different backgrounds and geographical areas. It should be noted that the teaching team has a high level of commitment and dedication, which favors students achieving a high academic performance.

The programme is part of many research networks related to gender equality and/or women’s rights, such as the the Autonomous University in Madrid, the Research Institute specialized in Women Studies, and the UNESCO Chair Unit in in “Gender Policies and Equal Rights between Women and Men”. The staff of the programme are interested in participating in networking activities related to research on gender and women’s issues at the Euro-Mediterranean level.

The Master Programme of the University of Granada

The Master programme in Women’s and Gender Studies (GEMMA) is located at the University Institute of Women’s Studies, Centre of Scientific Documentation, University of Granada.

This programme is the first joint European Master’s degree which since 2007 has been offering highest quality training in the field of Women’s and Gender Studies and equal opportunities. The main objectives of the programme is to provide high quality academic education and professional competences for students wanting to conduct research or to work in the areas of Women’s Studies, Gender Studies and equal opportunities. Specific objectives of the programme are:

– To offer students excellent training and attractive career prospects through horizontal and democratic learning

– To offer potential employers ethically trained and accountable personnel hence setting the bases for the generation of a new culture of employability To promote women’s action and networking at different levels, building diverse transnational equal opportunities’ communities within and beyond Europe.

-To advance on the transfer of knowledge and skills from the GEMMA students and faculty to the wider society

-To set the bases for further research within the GEMMA community, during and beyond the duration of the GEMMA programme.

The main themes of the programme are: Gender and Politics, Gender and Economy, GBV, Gender and Cooperation, Gender and Migration, Women’s Rights Conventions, Gender and human rights, Gender and Science, Feminist Theories and/or History, Gender, Arts and Literature, Gender and Nationalism, Gender and Religion, Feminism and Masculinities, Queer Theory.

The average number of students enrolled in the programme every year is 40-50. The average percentage of female students enrolled in the programme is 90%, and the average percentage of female academic staff in the programme is 95%. The programme approaches the context of gender equality and women’s rights in Spain through gender mainstreaming, which has been on the European Union’s agenda for over a decade now. GEMMA was the first Erasmus Mundus Master in gender and Women’s Studies and came originally timely linked with the “Roadmap for equality between women and men” published by the Commission of the European communities in Brussels in 2006 and officially presented on International Women’s Day (8 March), setting out concrete measures aimed at leveling out disparities between 2006 and 2010 (drawing from the experience of the framework strategy on gender equality, 2001-2005).

It is stated that “this roadmap must serve as a guide providing a series of indicators to measure the progress made in each Member State” and that “it is not a question of an abstract concept but, on the contrary, concerns concrete proposals”. Gender mainstreaming, furthermore, is still one of the key elements of European policies, as seen in two recent adoptions by European Union Parliament: the “Strategy of equality between women and men (2010-2015)” which aims at “strengthening cooperation between the various actors and improving governance […] (which lays) the ground for future cooperation on gender equality with Member States”. The strategy is based on the fact that “inequalities between women and men violate basic Human Rights. They also impose a heavy toll on the economy and represent an underutilization of talent. Economic and business benefits can be gained from enhancing gender equality” (21/9/2010) and the recent marking of the 4 International Women’s Day with the adoption by EU Parliament of a resolution on equality between women and men in the European Union (8/3/2011).

At academic level, the programme aims at extending the benefits of the project to a much wider community, through an enhanced network of 41 associate partners from different national and international contexts, fields and sectors: the academia, enterprises and NGOs. The programme offers many benefits: Mobility, joint supervision, multiculturalism, academic and industrial networks and opportunities for further research and academic publications. The GEMMA’s intercultural classroom has a positive impact on both students and scholars. Students, on the one hand, are put in a challenging situation to learn from each other in a number of ways, not only about cultural, but also about educational and disciplinary differences they are necessarily bringing to the class.

The university, on the other hand, has to address demands of excellent students and differences in their cultural and academic backgrounds, and to propose ways for going beyond them in research and in intellectual debates. The programme is part of many research networks related to gender equality and/or women’s rights, such as European Association for Gender Research, Education and Documentation (ATGENDER), with 48 institutional and numerous individual members, the European Women’s Audiovisual Network (EWA), whose mission is to promote gender equality among women audiovisual professionals; the Inter-America Organization for Higher Education (IAO), one of the widest university associations actively present in the Americas; the Sever Donne Italia ASS…

The staff of the programme are interested in participating in networking activities related to research on gender and women’s issues at the Euro-Mediterranean level.

The Master Programme of the University of Sevilla

The Master programme in Gender and Equality is located at the Pablo de Olavide University, Sevilla. The objectives of the programme are:

-Make students become experts at gender equality. By this, it is meant that students need to cater for the demand of professionals from public and private institutions that seek to develop programmes and equal opportunity policies, as well as the gender mainstreaming in the implementation of policies and the analysis of its gender impact.

-Help students acquire theoretical and practical knowledge in order to understand the meaning and application of the gender perspective in social research, and to define, promote and implement programmes on equal opportunities between women and men.

-Transmit the values of equality and democratic citizenship.

The main themes of the programme are: Gender and Politics, Gender and Economy, GBV, Gender and Migration, Feminist Theories and/or History. The average number of students enrolled in the programme every year is 30. The average percentage of female students enrolled in the programme is 90%, and the average percentage of female academic staff in the programme is 14%.

The programme approaches the context of gender equality and women’s rights in Spain critically, showing the advances but also the limitations for advancing gender equality in the actual austerity context. The programme discusses how important legal advances have been in Spain, but also the difficulties to really implement these legal advances when there is lack of political or budgetary commitment with equality. The main challenges the programme faces at the academic level are: (i) possible changes in taxes, (ii) changes on grants availability, and (iii) legal changes affecting Master degrees.

The programme is part of many research networks related to gender equality and/or women’s rights, such as the – Plataforma de Estudios Feministas y de Género (Spain) and the Proyecto Gendercit: Gender and Citizenship (PIRSES-GA-2012-318960). The staff of the programme are interested in participating in networking activities related to research on gender and women’s issues at the Euro-Mediterranean level.

12. Turkey

There are several Women’s Studies programmes in Turkey, but we choose to present two of them: the Master and Doctoral programmes “Women’s Studies”. Both of them are located in Mersin University, a public institution in Turkey. The main objectives of the programmes are:

– Contribute to gender equality through conducting research studies,

– Have graduates with gender sensitivity,

– Enable women to reach positions of high responsibility in the business world and encourage their empowerment,

– Have more women in politics, in peace talks, cooperating with men.

The main themes that the programme addresses are: Gender and Politics, Gender and Economy, GBV, Gender and Migration, Feminist Theories and/or History, Gender, Arts and Literature. The average number of students enrolled in the programme every year is 10. The average percentage of female students enrolled in the programme is 70%, and the average percentage of female academic staff in the programme is 80%. The programme approaches the context of gender equality and women’s rights in Turkey by producing reports that highlight the gaps in gender equality in specific fields like education or labor. The main challenge the programme faces at the academic level is the lack of a separate department in Turkish universities where the graduates of the PhD programme can be established. The programme is not part of any research network related to gender equality and/or women’s rights, but the staff of the programme are interested in participating in networking activities related to research on gender and women’s issues at the Euro-Mediterranean level.

Analysis of the Gender and Women’s Academic Programmes in the Arab World and Southern and Central Europe

In this analysis, focus is put on the following aspects of the academic programmes in the Arab World and Southern and Central Europe: their academic nature, their objectives, the themes they address, the gender ratio of students and staff, the challenges they face, and whether or not they are part of any gender equality and/or women’s rights networks.

I. Analysis of the Gender and Women’s Academic Programmes in the Arab World

1. Academic Nature

In this section, the politics of terminology in Gender and Women’s Studies academic programmes in the Arab World is addressed. Focus is put on appellations of the programmes and the job titles of the leaders of these programmes, as well as the specific departments where the programmes are located and their interdisciplinarity.

a. Names of the Academic Programmes

Most of the studied programmes are graduate thesis-based Master programmes that are located in academic institutes, centers, or laboratories and that constitute part and parcel of universities. Some of these programmes are accompanied by either a Diploma programme, a Graduate Unit programme, or a Doctoral (PhD) programme. The first clue to the academic nature of these programmes is the names they carry. An analysis of these names reveals significant facts. Broadly speaking, three categories may be singled out here: (i) programmes that highlight the term “gender” in their names like the ones in Mostghanem (Algeria), Ifrane (Morocco) or Beirut (Lebanon), (ii) programmes that highlight the term “women” in their names like the ones in Amman (Jordan) or Ramallah (Palestine), and (iii) those that highlight a combination of “gender” and “women” in their names like the one in the American University in Cairo (Egypt). When asked, some leaders of the programmes that highlight “gender” expressed their desire to address society at large, rather than women as a group of individuals.

Whatever the reason, programme naming in this case (and in academe in general) is a statement in itself because the choice of names in academe reflects the choice of concepts that matter for particular programmes and that shape their contents and syllabi. As such, the name of a particular programme provides a lens through which one can observe how the themes of the programme are conceptualized and expected to evolve. Indeed, the naming of disciplines in academia carries its own power. Post-Structuralists, following De Saussure, have argued that while the relationship between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary, once established, this relationship lends a heuristic power to language in the sense that it involves and serves as an aid to learning, to discovery, or to problem-solving by experimental and especially trial-and-error methods. The creative power of naming is particularly important in the emerging programmes addressing Gender and Women’s Studies academic programmes in the Arab World. These programmes introduce semantically loaded terms and expressions like “gender” and “women’s studies” in academic environments where these terms and expressions are considered “alien” to the social norms regulating relations between men and women and where such relations are already specified by a combination of the “legal”, “political”, and “religious” parameters.

Within this overall context, naming a programme is linguistically legitimizing it as a full academic discipline, which fact is bound to introduce changes in the curricula which host these programmes. Indeed, the leaders of the researched programmes often identify their programmes as a means of democratizing higher education. These programmes are indeed generally perceived as innovative and “modern” in the sense that they actively carve out a space that may not be recognized in their societies and cultures.

b. Job Titles of the leaders of the programmes

In addition to naming the programmes, the leaders of the programmes also chose how to name themselves. In the totality of the surveyed programmes in the Arab World, leaders are women. These leaders call themselves “Coordinator”, “Director”, “Head”, “Responsible”, or “Founder/Co-founder”. Power and hierarchy are invoked here. A leader who chooses to keep her title as “Coordinator”, explained that she believed “Coordinator” would imply articulation between herself and her department. Other programme leaders who chose the title “Director” felt the need to add prestige to their position, while others prefer “Director” as simply a more accurate description of their administrative functions.

c. Departments and Interdiciplinarity

Although the bulk of the programmes are located in humanities and social sciences, with some being located in Global Affairs, Public Policy or Political Science, these programmes are highly interdisciplinary. There are two reasons for this state of affairs: first the sore lack of specialists in Gender and Women’s Studies per se, and second, the nature of the programmes, which relate men’s and women’s issues to society and which use several approaches that involve psychology, sociology, linguistics, religious studies, etc.

All the surveyed programmes require a B.A. before entry. In some better structured programmes, a Minor in Gender and/or Women’s Studies or a related course are required. The majority of the programmes have websites with more or less ample information. Hence, for example, whereas the websites of Palestinian Ramallah programme and the Egyptian AUC programme contain ample contents, those of the Algerian programmes have hardly any information. In terms of the courses offered, the Gender and Women’s Studies programmes are research and thesis-based, semester-based. They generally have a two-years duration and use a system of credits and electives. Most of the programmes are taught in English, although Morocco has programmes that are taught in French and Arabic.

Finally, the studied programmes allow students wishing to pursue doctoral work to have the necessary training in Gender and Women’s studies, including the theoretical and methodological strengths in most disciplines and applied research fields. Indeed, some programmes, like the Moroccan ones, already have full-fledged doctoral extensions. In terms of accessibility, the great majority of the programmes are free and run by their respective Ministries of education or a similar institution. Out of the 14 programmes studied, only 4 are private (AUC (Egypt), LUB (Lebanon), AUB (Lebanon) and AUI (Morocco).

2. Programme Objectives

The main shared objectives of the programmes may be summarized as follows: (i) expose students to theories of gender and feminism, (ii) highlight the status of women in the Arab world in general and in home countries in particular, (iii) define women’s rights and contextualize Family and Labor Laws, (iv), underline women’s creativity in various fields and foster a gender-based critical thinking when dealing with history, (v) allow students to work on gender issues, development policies, research and practices, gender equality, human rights, cultural diversity, good governance, multiculturalism and democracy, (vi) deconstruct religion and show how it is used by patriarchy, as well as highlight women’s agency in religion. Some programmes (such the Moroccan and Palestinian ones) have specific objectives like expanding a network of institutions, as well as partnership with European and African institutions with the aim of improving institutional policies, social action and agenda for women’s movements, (vii) prepare students for a wide variety of professional careers such as consultants in international development agencies, local NGOs, national government agencies, and international development agencies.

3.Themes

The main themes addressed by the Gender and Women’s Studies Programmes in the Arab World may be summarized as follows: Gender and Politics, Gender and Economy, Gender and Science, Feminist Theory and/or History, Gender, Arts and Literature, Gender and Nationalism, Feminist Philosophy, Gender and Media, Gender and Psychology, Gender and Law.

Other themes are: Gender and Migration, Gender and Race, Gender and Development, Gender and Popular Culture, Gender and Governance, Gender and Human Rights, Women’s Rights and International Conventions, Family Laws, Gender and Violence, Gender and Religion, Qur’anic discourse, Prophetic Discourse, Classical and Contemporary Islamic Jurisprudence, Islamic Discourse, Women in Contemporary Muslim Societies: Economic and Social Issues, Muslim Women in non-Muslim Societies, Women’s Movements in the Muslim World, Politics of Gender in the Islamic World, and Globalization. Further, most of the programmes offer courses on Research Methods and how to prepare and write theses on Gender and Women’s issues.

4.Gender Ratio in the Students’ and Staff Population

The average number of students enrolled in the programmes every year is less than 30, most of them between 15 and 20. As for the average percentage of female students enrolled, it is overwhelmingly high in all the programmes. The programmes approach gender equality and women’s rights in their countries in interesting ways.

In Egypt, for example, the AUC programme does it through the elective course “Gender and Inequality”, and in Morocco, the programmes do it by focusing on the Family Law reforms in the country. It is interesting to note that the staff population in the Gender and Women’s academic programmes, the overwhelming majority is female. Furthermore, most women who initiate or teach in these programmes are also directly or indirectly involved in gender equality and women’s rights associations.

5.Challenges

The programmes face important challenges that vary from country to country. In Algeria, lack of visibility seems to be a mighty challenge. Extracting information from colleagues there proved to be scarce and tedious. Unclear political reasons/fears seem to hinder such communication. In most programmes, the biggest challenge is lack of funding. Another challenge is recognition of their MA by other disciplines and/or the facilitation of a Doctoral programme in gender and Women’s Studies in order not to lose their students. Further, institutionalization of gender and equality in the Arab countries is also a challenge. Serious efforts are needed in gender mainstreaming in various educational, financial, etc. institutions are lacking. Expertise in teachers is yet another challenge which needs to be seriously addressed. In some programmes, such as the Egyptian one, the main challenge is to maintain and sustain the level of experts, students and content that they have started with.

6. Networking with Gender Equality and/or Women’s Rights

Surprisingly, the majority of Gender and Women’s Studies programmes are not related to gender equality and/or women’s rights organizations. The main reason given when asked was that these programmes want to demarcate themselves from civil society. However, all the programmes expressed their will to participate in networking activities related to research on gender and women´s issues at the Euro-Mediterranean level.

7. General Synthesis and Recommendations

The countries of the Arab World share three founding and interrelated characteristics that are crucial for the understanding of the nature, objectives, and themes, challenges of the Gender and Women’s Studies programmes: Islam, Arabic, and a space-based patriarchy. The countries are nevertheless multicultural and multilingual. The programmes are geared towards promoting women’s status legally and politically because women’s rights and citizenship in this part of the world are generally governed by legal Islam. As Arabic is tightly related to Islam, teaching gender and Women’s Studies in English or French makes it easier to address taboo topics. Indeed, the language of teaching is very important in this case. It is no coincidence that in many instances, such as in the Moroccan case, the programmes appeared first in English departments and then spread to the French and Arabic departments. The programmes, mostly graduated and led by female Professors, have been increasing in number and improving in quality and outreach in Euro-Med universities and institutes of higher education.

Being largely a twenty-first century phenomenon in the region, these programmes were boosted by the increasing women’s access to higher education as students and professors and the pervasive ease of information-sharing brought about by a fast-developing technology, especially internet and social media. Women are indeed more and more visible as university educators and learners, especially in Faculties of Arts and Humanities and Political Sciences. However, the inclusion of gender in the academic planning varies from region to region and from university to university, hence the need to analyze the gaps and reflect on ways to enhance the visibility of these programs and highlight their nature and function in the Euro-Med region. Interdisciplinary by nature, gender academic programmes impact and are impacted by various fundamental disciplines, namely humanities, social sciences, as well as economic and political sciences.

As such, these programmes thrive on and influence feminist knowledgeproduction and students’ gender perception, hence their importance for the future of academia in the Euro-Med region. Further, with both theoretical and empirical arms, these programmes are also vital for gender equality actors, experts, practitioners, and policy and decision makers.

Part of the attractive nature of gender academic programs in the Arab World is their inclusiveness of men, women and society (as opposed to Women’s Studies which tend to concentrate on women), timeliness, flexibility, vitality, and interactivity with the overall historical, socio-cultural, and political contexts in which they evolve. Indeed, the Arab World is itself particularly interesting in this regard because it brings together strong European, North African, and Middle Eastern socio-cultural components, such as youth bulge, changing socio-political ideologies and perceptions of religion, the rise of extremisms, the rise of populism, all of which deeply related to men-women relation and social behavior. Overall, the main aims of the programmes are threefold: (i) challenge traditional modes of thinking about men and women, (ii) reclaim the role of women in knowledge-production, and (iii) democratize higher education, and society at large by highlighting gender equality. Up to recently, most university syllabi in the Arab World had been overwhelmingly articulated from a male perspective, with sporadic allusions to women’s works, hence creating modes of thinking and academic perspectives that concentrate on males’ interests to the detriment of women’s.

Gender academic programmes in the Arab World aim at correcting this injustice and redressing the gender balance by uncovering women’s spaces of reflection in academe. In parallel, while the official histories of the region seldom underline the role of women in knowledge-production, these programmes draw attention to the forgotten role of women in the construction of these histories by introducing women’s oral and written types of knowledge-production as vital in the understanding of the past, present, and future of the region. Finally, these programmes constitute a powerful means of democratizing higher education in the region and fostering self-confidence in the new generations of both male and female students. For these and other reasons, it is a worthwhile endeavor to involve more men in these programmes.

This enterprise is particularly welcome in the current troubled times where the concept of equality between sexes is being drowned in the rising dogmatic ideologies, and where even the delimitation of the terms “gender” and “feminism” is increasingly problematic. Only academic research can help understand, create, and situate 5 the concepts used in gender studies at large. Understanding these objectives helps us to identify the factors that hinder the formation of gender academic programs in some countries and will contribute to concluding recommendations on how to foster the inclusion of gender issues and women’s rights in the academic institutions.

II. Comparisons between the Gender Academic Programmes

In this section, a double comparison will be made, first between the gender academic programmes in the Arab countries, and then between the programmes in the Arab World and the ones in Southern and Central Europe.

1. The Programmes in the Arab World

In spite of the fact that the Middle East and North Africa share the same Standard/official language (Arabic) and religion (Islam), there are more differences than similarities when it comes to the gender academic programmes. The reason is that these programmes came at a historical moment (beginning of the 21st century or slightly before) when more women reached the university, women’s movements started to acquire legitimacy in the public spheres of authority, and various minorities started to be vocal.

a. Similarities

The first similarity between the programmes of the Arab World is they are predominantly located in well-established universities. Second, they all research-based and thesis-oriented, with both a theoretical and practical arms. Third, they are all initiated and led by female university professors who also are interested in civil society issues. Fourth, they emerged predominantly in departments where English is used either as a means of instruction or as the topic of studies. Fifth, these programmes generally started as “Women’s Studies” and then developed into “Gender Studies” or a combination of the two. Sixth, the programmes are interdisciplinary, based on a credit and semester system, with, at times, electives.

Seventh, the objectives of the programmes tend to be “tuned” to local and regional concerns, with an eye on universal issues that are shared by all women. The latter tend to be vehicled by theoretical courses on feminism and gender. Eighth, as the objectives generally dictate the themes, the latter tend to share similaries. Ninth, their main challenge is funding. Tenth, the people in charge of the programmes are all interested in participating in networking activities related to research on gender and women’s issues at the EuroMediterranean level. Eleventh, none of the programmes, except one of the Lebanese ones, has queer theories although the programmes tackle taboo topics.

Twelfth, they all organize study days, seminars, national and international conferences, and some of them publish articles, Proceedings of conferences, etc. Finally, all the Arab World academic gender programmes prepare students for a wide variety of professional careers, such as consultants in national and international development agencies, local NGOs, and national government agencies. The programmes also allow students wishing to pursue doctoral work to have the necessary training in gender and women’s studies, including the theoretical and methodological strengths in most disciplines and applied research fields. As such these programmes constitute “modern” or “modernizing” and “innovative” institutions. It would be interesting to have a monitoring/evaluating system to know what the students have become. In Morocco, most students access the labour market after pursuing their Gender Studies. Some of them are employed in the Minsitry of Religious Affairs. It is not clear why.

The proportion of students who undertake a PhD after completing their BA/Master is not known, but in Morocco more males pursue their studies than female who oftentimes prefer to marry first. As for literature production, there is no information as to the dissemination of the theses as there is no academic programme which publishes/spreads them. There are, however, 6 individual attempts by the students themselves to publish their theses on the net.

b. Differences

First, historically, the programmes appeared first in the Middle East then in North Africa. It is interesting that the first programme appeared in Palestine, an occupied territory, mainly due to relatively high literacy rates in this country. While illiteracy is almost inexistent in Palestine, Morocco and Egypt, for example, have high levels of illiteracy (60%) as a result of the marginalization of rural areas during colonization and state-building. Second, the Middle East programmes are more transnational in that they receive students from all more countries outside the host ones. The fact that these programmes are generally paying is part of their transnational nature. Third, related to the previous difference, the programmes do not share the same prerequisite conditions that qualify potential students. For example, the American University in Cairo (Egypt) requires students to take two undergraduate courses, namely “Theorizing gender” and “Critical Geographies: Reading the Global South” before entering the Institute for Gender and Women’s Studies, whereas the gender and Women’s Studies academic programmes in Tunisia and Morocco require students to pass an entry exam. Fourth, more broadly, the differences stem from basic differences between the Middle East and North Africa. The main differences may be summarized as follows:

(i) The language issue: English is predominant in the Middle East, whereas French and Arabic (in addition to English) are more prominent in North Africa.

(ii) Religions (Islam, Christianity and Judaism) and languages compete more in the Middle East (where they co-exist) than in North Africa (where Islam is pervasive).

(iii) The Middle East is predominantly Arab, whereas North Africa is more multiethnic in also involving Coptic and Amazigh (Berber) populations. Consequently, Arabic is more related to identity in the Middle East than in North Africa where multilingualism is more accepted and less threatening.

(iv) More publications, whether those used as materials by the Gender and Women’s Studies programmes in the form of books and articles, or those produced by the students and/or their teachers, are found in the Middle East than in North Africa although the gap is being gradually filled by more knowledge-production in the field by North Africans.

(v) Although interdisciplinary, more political science involved in the Middle East than in North Africa.

(vi)Interestingly, there is more gender mixture in North Africa, whether in relation to the ratio of female students or that of female staff, than in the Middle East. For example, in Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco, the programmes include male teachers and male students, sometimes in equal numbers with female teachers and students. This is due to the fact that women’s legal rights are part and parcel of the state-building rhetoric in these countries of the Maghreb, which subsequently led to more advanced family Codes in these countries than in the rest of the Arab world, and also to the fact that gender equality is more “absorbed” in the social fabric of North African countries than it is in the Middle eastern societies.

(vii) More academic Gender and Women’s Studies programmes are located in public universities in North Africa than in the Middle East where the major programmes are located in private universities.

(viii) Related to the preceding point, more Gender and Women’s Studies programmes with websites and structure are found in the Middle East than in North Africa.

(ix)The Middle Eastern programmes are more geared more towards nationalism and big movements (Palestine for example) than in North Africa where the programmes are more geared toward the family laws and equality.

(x) Although all programmes lack funding there is a difference: private universities like AUC or the Ifrane University are more structured although the funds do not generally go to the programmes, the situation is more complicated in public universities where the management of funds is more centralized and less in the hands of the leaders of the programmes.

As a result of these differences, the academic gender programmes are more integrated in the university curricula and also more accepted in North Africa than in the Middle East. Indeed in spite of the higher female literacy in the Middle East than North Africa, including Egypt, the latter region has older Family Codes and more frequent reforms of the Codes. For example, the Tunisian Family Code that bans polygamy dates to 1956 and the 2004 reforms of the Moroccan Code are substantial in that they stipulate equality in the age of marriage, the end of unilateral divorce, etc. Further, the programmes of North Africa are more geared towards approaching religion critically than the ones in the Middle East. They are more integrated with civil society they are more related to women’s rights movement dealing with equality than the Middle Eastern ones. This is also due to the fact that women’s rights and family laws in general are much more egalitarian in North Africa than in the Middle East. This, of course, points to a paradox: while literacy is higher in the Middle East, rights are more real in North Africa. The question that arises is: what is the role of higher education? This is still an open question that needs further research.

2. The Programmes in the Arab World and in Southern and Central Europe

a. Similarities

First, all the analysed programmes are graduate, thesis-based, generally Master Programmes. Second, all the programmes, except the one in Hungary, are interested in participating in networking activities related to research on gender and women’s issues at the EuroMediterranean level.

b. Differences

First, the names of the Southern and Central Europe academic programmes are more elaborate in the sense that they have more words/meaning nuances in the titles, hence showing specific foci.

Second, the job titles of the leaders of the Southern and Central Europe programmes are various, with a clear division between academic and administrative functions.

Third, there are more students in the Southern and Central European programmes but with a clear predominance of females. Also, there are less men in the staffs of the Southern and Central European countries than in the Arab World programmes.

This makes the latter programmes less related to their social environments than the Arab World programmes. In other words, whereas European Gender and Women’s Studies programmes are conceptually based on the notion that women need to ask rights from men because Western societies are male-dominated, Gender and Women’s Studies programmes are conceptually based on the notion of seeking more rights for citizens because the Arab societies are patriarchal in the sense that both men and women are oppressed by a patriarchy where the patriarch (father, ruler) uses religion to maintain power. This is why the programmes in the Arab World are more linked to society with little interference from institutions. Indeed, there is more gender mainstreaming in Southern and Central European countries because of the greater strength of institutions in these countries than in the Arab World, which leaves less leeway for university programmes. In the Arab world, the programmes are generally conceived as a way of affecting real change at the institutional level, hence their more significant interaction with civil rights and human rights organizations than the Southern and Central European ones. In a sense, the Gender and Women’s Studies in the Arab World, staff and students included, are more apt to effect change in their societies than are their counterparts in Southern and Central Europe.

Fourth, there are more topics to address in the Arab World than in Southern and Central Europe. This makes the programmes in the Arab World more amenable to research than the ones in Southern and Central Europe.

Fifth, the objectives are different. There are more immediate and concrete socio-cultural concerns in the Arab World programmes than in Southern and Central European ones. Further, there is more political edge to the Arab World academic programmes than to the Southern and Central European ones.

Sixth, the themes are different. For example, Queer Studies are prominent in European Gender and Women’s programs than in the Arab World programs.

Seventh, the Southern and Central European programmes are more linked to equality networks like AtGender but the latter, like the programmes, are more exclusive of men than the programmes of the Arab World.

Eighth, the Southern and Central European programmes address gender equality more aggressively. The reason is that whereas patriarchy in West is image-based, in the Arab World it is space-based. As such the latter oppresses men and women. Hence whereas the confrontation is more (at least at the surface level) between men and women in Europe, in the Arab World the confrontation is more between men who compete as to who would control his women better.

Ninth, the challenges are different. In general, the gender academic programmes in the Arab World are more involved with the state and institutions than the Southern and Central European ones.

Tenth, while the majority of the Gender and Women’s Studies programmes in the Arab World use gender and feminist theories that produced in the West, the Southern European programmes do not generally use the feminist knowledge produced in the Arab World. Lack of translation may be a cause of this. In the Arab World, the gender and Women’s Studies programmes are aware of the socio-cultural issues involved and need to attend to the expectations of their students and their socio-cultural context in order to survive and continue.

Eleventh, the programmes are more rapidly developing in the Arab World than in Southern and Central Europe. It is interesting to see the programmes flourish in relatively recent universities like al-Akhawayne or Meknes than the slow appearance in much older universities in Europe.

Twelfth, the programs are more integrated with their respective societies the Arab world, especially North Africa, than in Southern and Central Europe. For example, the Albanian programme leader stated that their programme has no impact on its social environment and no impact on the institutionalization process.

Thirteenth, whereas most programmes are paying in Southern and Central Europe, most programmes are free of charge in the Middle East and North Africa, especially in the latter. The only non-private programme in Southern and Central Europe is the Croatian one.

Conclusions and Recommendations

First, there is a real need to theorize Gender and Women’s Studies in the Arab World. Without relinquishing theories that address universal issues, the specificities of the region need to be theorized. In an article on the theoretical framework for research in on gender, Sadiqi argues that while all the gender issues are of interest and importance to Gender and Women’s Studies programmes in the Arab World in general, it is possible to see some of these issues as ‘characteristic’ of Arab/Muslim contexts (albeit with ‘echoes’ elsewhere). More situated understandings of gender identities, gender relations, feminism, etc. need to be included in academia because to date, empirical studies of gender and women’s studies have been carried out mostly in the USA, Northern Europe, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.

Second, it is important to understand that most Arab universities often lack resources to support research, and unlike their Western counterparts, Arab academics in general cannot benefit from opportunities offered by national or regional Research Funding Councils.

Language is another issue: most Arab scholars do not have English as an L1, and find themselves marginalized in international academic enterprises, where publication and other activities are conducted overwhelmingly in British/American English. This leads to an inequitable situation where Arab work written in English is useful for the international academic community, but the vice-versa is not always true. Academic research in gender and women’s issues needs to be complemented by research and publication in local languages in the Arab world, and this should be recognized positively. Much of the systematic knowledge available in academic gender programmes in the Arab World, especially the books and journal articles, is either derived from or produced by Western scholars, hence imbued with a Western-based logic.

Fourth, there is need to make sure that gender knowledge-production and the topics offered in the Arab World are rooted in the local history and culture while opening on the West. To do so, we need to develop modern local theories and understandings that are able to reach the international community and secure international engagement. This is crucial for the development of the gender and women’s studies field as a whole, which will benefit greater diversity of contexts (especially new data, new understandings of gender, different research priorities, and different manifestations of gender roles, relations, identities, representations in different contexts and Communities of Practice (Eckert and McConnell-Ginet 1992; 1999). Academic gender programmes are ideal for teasing out the diversity of gendered and other discourses that characterise the Arab World and its many diverse and changing cultures and contexts, as exemplified by the range of research foci in the studied programs.

Fifth, while every Arab country is ‘special’ in some way, anything that happens in one country has ‘echoes’ in other countries (whether in or outside the region)t. Topics like cultures of orality, multi-linguicism/ multi-ethnicity, respect for the elderly, the importance of religion, strong family networks, often salient gender differentiation, stark gaps between rich and poor and sharp juxtapositions of the traditional and the modern – relative to some parts of the ‘Western’ world. To avoid apolitical and ahistorical concepts, we need to add characteristics of relatively recent colonialism, post-colonialism, extremism, radicalization, on-going regional conflict, gender and refugees and gender and Race, Security, etc. Indeed these increasingly shared concerns.

Sixth, we need to also address religion. There is danger of submerging the programs with religion: a fine line that needs to be negotiated carefully. Also negotiate Arabic as a medium of instruction carefully because of its intrinsic link with religion and power… There is a real need to address taboos within this context and not as implanted topics that would give the impression that the contents are imported.

Seventh, to do this, we need specific pedagogy in teaching new courses, and to include men and religious men to demystify the blocking categories and ideology.

Eighth, women and language need to be part of all this. There is a quasi-absence of language and gender programmes that address concepts that matter because female Arab linguists are very scarce.

Ninth, we need to enhance the visibility of the most relevant academic institutions that offer gender-related masters and PhDs in the region.

Tenth, there should be more interactions, coordination and student/staff exchanges on an equal-basis between the gender academic programmes in the Arab World and Southern and Central Europe.